Scrapes

• What they are: Scrapes, medically known as abrasions, occur when the top layer of skin is scraped off leaving a raw, painful area that may bleed from one or more spots. Rug burn and “road rash,” are types of scrapes.  Scrapes are tear-inducing but generally not medically serious.
• What to do: Wash your hands before touching the area. Your first priority is keeping the wound clean to keep it from getting infected. Clean the wound with mild soap and clean water and remove any dirt as best you can before patting it dry. Don’t use alcohol or hydrogen peroxide on the wound (this can actually harm healthy cells in the wound and delay healing!) Instead, apply a thin layer of antiseptic cream and cover with a bandaid. Change the band aid every day and apply a new layer of ointment. Any scab that forms on the scrape should be left to come off on its own, so keep it covered to prevent tiny fingers with other plans from interfering!
• When to call your provider: If you can’t get all the dirt out of the scrape with gentle washing, it’s alright to dry and cover it and let it heal. But if there are pieces of gravel, wood or another material you cannot remove, you should seek medical help. You should also call your provider if the scrape was from metal (rusty or not!) as your child may need a tetanus shot. If the scrape does not show signs of healing in two days, or if it becomes more red, painful, begins to ooze, or your child develops a fever, the wound may be infected and should be seen by a provider ASAP.

Bumps and bruises

• What they are: Bruises happen when your tiny explorer bumps or bangs against something hard enough to break blood vessels underneath the skin. Right away the skin turns bright red and sometimes swells into a “bump.” This is the first stage of the bruise and it happens because blood is flowing to the injury site to help heal it. “Goose eggs,” (as bumps on a forehead are sometimes called) are caused by all this blood coming together in one small area and getting trapped. Sometimes the blood spreads out and the skin remains flat. When the pooled blood at an injury site loses oxygen over time it turns purple and blue and then lightens to green or yellow depending on skin tone. Bumps and bruises look scary, but are often no cause for concern and will heal on their own.
• What to do: If your tiny explorer falls or bangs against something, put some ice or a cold pack on it right away. It will help with pain and also minimize the bruising. Use the ice for 15 minutes at a time and only once per hour. Place a towel or other barrier between the cold and your child’s skin, and use child-appropriate doses of tylenol or ibuprofen (not aspirin) for pain.
• When to call your provider: Bumps or bruises that do not show signs of healing after about a week should be checked out by a healthcare provider. Bruises that keep appearing for no reason are also cause for concern and should be reported to your child’s provider.
• When to seek immediate medical attention: If your child is having trouble moving or using the bruised area, it may mean there is an underlying injury such as a broken bone. For example, a bruised knee should never be so painful on its own that your child cannot stand or walk on it. You should also call your healthcare provider if your child has a bump or a bruise after an injury to the head in order to rule out a concussion. If any of the following things occur after a bump to the head, bring your child to the hospital immediately: loss of consciousness, child appearing drowsy or confused, vomiting, unequal pupils, fluid or blood draining from ears or nose, crying for hours, or child just doesn’t seem like themselves. Should any of these symptoms occur after a blow to the head, bring them to the hospital immediately and do not let them fall asleep.

Sources

• Corbett. H. (8/22/16). “Bruises in Children: What’s Normal and When To Worry.” Riley Children’s Health Website. www.rileychildrens.org/connections/bruises-in-children-whats-normal-and-when-to-worry. Accessed 13 April  2017.
• “Cuts, grazes and bruises.” Women and Children’s Health Network. 22 Aug. 2016. www.cyh.com/HealthTopics/HealthTopicDetails.aspx?id=1889&np=305&p=114#9. Accessed 14 April, 2017.
• “Debunking Myths of Wound Care.” Advanced Tissue Blog. 2 July 2014. www.advancedtissue.com/debunking-myths-wound-care/. Accessed 14 April, 2017.
• “Head Bumps and Bruises: When To Worry About Head Injuries.” Children’s Hospital St. Louis. 29 Mar. 2010. childrensmd.org/browse-by-topic/head-bumps-and-bruises-when-to-worry-about-head-injuries/. Accessed 14 April 2017.

1. Fever over 105 F (40.5 C), or 100.4 F (38 C) for babies under 3 months
   Fevers normally have to be over 106 F (41.1 C) to pose a risk to the brain, but it’s best that you call the pediatrician for any fever over 100.4 F (38 C) in a baby less than 3 months old. If you do notice a high fever, you should also pay attention to any other symptoms your child might be displaying. You may also want to call for a lower fever if it lasts more than a few days, as this is probably a sign of illness.
2. Bloody stool
   If the poop is black, it might mean blood has been digested. This could just be a result of bleeding or cracked nipples while breastfeeding, but could also be a sign of something more serious. Call the doctor regardless, just to be safe. Poop that is mostly bright red with blood is of greater concern, and should lead to an immediate call to the doctor.
3. Intense abdominal pain
   Digestive problems are about as common in babies as trees are in a forest, but you should definitely call the pediatrician if your child is experiencing intense abdominal pain, or if the pain is concentrated in one area.
4. Severe vomiting, or vomiting that lasts longer than a day
   Like abdominal pain, a child is bound to vomit at some point in the early days, but very severe or frequent vomiting, or vomiting that lasts longer than a day deserves a call to the pediatrician.
5. Intense diarrhea or mild diarrhea that lasts for 10 or more days
   Diarrhea is pretty common in babies, but if your child has severe, dehydrating diarrhea, or mild diarrhea that lasts more than 10 days, you should call the doctor.
6. Dehydration
   Common signs of dehydration include a lack of tears when crying, fewer wet diapers than you previously noticed, or going 6 or more hours with a dry diaper.
7. Lethargy, or lack of interest in feeding
   This could be symptomatic of a number of different things, so it’s best to call the doctor if a baby seems more lethargic or less interested in eating than usual.
8. Constant or painful cough
   A small cough that goes away is no big deal, but a cough that is constant, or causes pain should definitely be reported.
9. Breathing problems
   If it seems like there’s some breathing trouble going on, you should call the pediatrician right away. This includes wheezing, or straining for breath.
10. Rash that doesn’t clear within a few days
    Lots of children get rashes, but most clear within a few days. If it doesn’t, it’s a good idea to make the call.
11. If you’re worried
    Last, but certainly not least, you should feel free to call the pediatrician whenever you’re worried. Now, we’re not saying to call about every sneeze and boo-boo, but if a call to the doctor would make you feel more comfortable, you shouldn’t hesitate to make it.

The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that all healthy infants be put down to sleep on their backs, not their sides or stomachs.

Why should babies sleep on their backs?

This is the safest position to sleep for the first year of life, since it drastically reduces the chance of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, often known as SIDS.

SIDS is one of the top 5 causes of death for babies under age one. However, the SIDS rate has declined by 50% since experts began recommending that parents place babies on their backs to sleep for every nap and overnight. While experts do not know exactly what causes SIDS, in addition to genetic predisposition, there may also be airway and awareness changes that make it harder for babies on their stomachs to get enough oxygen. 

Doctors used to believe that if babies slept on their backs, if they were to vomit it could cause dangerous blocked airways. Doctors later discovered that babies have little difficulty turning their heads while sick or spitting up, and leaving baby in a stomach down position is far more dangerous. If your newborn has a condition that forces them to remain on their stomachs, consult your pediatrician or family doctor about safe sleep positions. Infants who sleep on their backs are also less susceptible to ear infections, fevers, and stuffy noses.

Even if your newborn is sleeping on their back, it is important to avoid soft surfaces like pillows and comforters, stuffed toys, loose clothing, crib bumpers or any other potentially loose item (like mittens or hats) which can block the airway. A firm crib mattress covered by a tightly fitted sheet is the safest bedding for an infant, even if it seems empty in there! The AAP recommends that infants should be sleeping in their sleep space alone as well.

Parents and caregivers should place infants on their backs for every sleep. Once a baby can roll into their preferred sleep position, you do not need to reposition them as SIDS becomes far less of a risk. 

Reviewed by the Ovia Health Clinical Team 

Sources

• “Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About SIDS and Safe Infant Sleep.” National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Web.
• “Sleep Position: Why Back is Best.” HealthyChildren. American Academy of Pediatrics, November 21 2015. Web.
• “Sudden Infant Death Syndrome(SIDS).” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, October 3 2016. Web.

Children under the age of 4 are the age group most likely to choke on food, so it’s still important to stay watchful and make sure their foods are served appropriately, and with an eye for choking hazards, for a while longer. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends food be cut into pieces no larger than half an inch – especially round and hard foods.

Until Baby has had enough practice chewing with their molars, which won’t be for another couple of years, it’s very important to monitor mealtime to minimize the risk of choking.

The following foods are considered common choking hazards:

• Hot dogs
• Sausages
• Chunks of cheese and meat
• Popcorn
• Peanut butter
• Nuts
• Chewy foods
• Sticky foods
• Chewing gum

Hot dogs and sausages should always be cut lengthwise before chopping and servings. Peanut butter should be spread thin, or even thinned out with water. Avoid snacks like popcorn, gum, and other chewy treats at this age.

In addition to ensuring food is properly served, here are some additional safety tips for snack and mealtime:

• Stay seated: Make sure all eating is done sitting down and not on the go. Remind Baby it is very important not to run or jump with food in their mouth.
• Supervise: Though choking is often associated with loud, hard fits of coughing, it can also be silent if the food has fully blocked the windpipe. Be sure to watch as they eats at all times. And while it can be a tempting timesaver, it’s safest to avoid offering meals and snacks in the car.
• Eat slowly: Encourage them to take small bites of food, and to not put too much food in their mouth at once. This may take practice, but eventually, they’ll understand the importance of not eating too quickly.
• Be prepared: In the event of an emergency, call or have someone else call 911 immediately, as there is no time to waste when it comes to choking. If you haven’t done so already, register for a CPR course in your area so you are able to assist if your child needs help.

Accidents can happen at any time, but the more practice Baby gets with chewing and eating, the safer they’ll become.

Sources

• “Choking first aid for kids.” Raising Children. Raising Children Network, September 21 2016. Retrieved August 17 2017. http://raisingchildren.net.au/articles/pip_choking.html.
• “Choking Prevention.” HealthyChildren. The American Academy of Pediatrics, November 21 2015. Retrieved August 17 2017. https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/injuries-emergencies/Pages/Choking-Prevention.aspx. 

How to prevent a sunburn

The best ways to prevent sunburns are to avoid the sun, apply (and reapply) SPF 30+ sunscreen, and wear clothes and hats that cover any exposed skin. It seems simple, but the sun can be a sneaky little giant ball of burning gas! It can catch you when you’re outside a little longer than you expected, when you’re in the car, and even through clouds. You can’t always anticipate the weather or how long you’re going to be in the sun, so do your best to keep sunscreen in many different places so you’ll have access to it in a pinch. Keep a bottle near the door to your home, in your car if you have one, and maybe even keep a travel-sized bottle on you when you leave the house. Try to plan your outdoor activities when the sun isn’t super high or bright.

How to treat a sunburn

A bad sunburn can also cause symptoms like blisters, fever, nausea, chills, or faintness. If the sunburn is severe enough to trigger these symptoms, take your child to see a healthcare provider for evaluation and treatment. If it’s just a standard “should have put on more sunscreen” burn, on the other hand, you can take some of these steps:

• Avoid being in the sun until the sunburn heals
• Make sure Baby stays hydrated
• Run the burn under cold water, give Baby cool baths, or use cool compresses
• Apply aloe vera gel or a topical pain reliever for children
• Keep Baby from picking at any blisters

There’s really no way around it: the first day with a sunburn is going to be unpleasant no matter what you do. Using aloe vera gel can be soothing, and you can give your toddler ibuprofen or acetaminophen if they is really uncomfortable. The best thing you can do is keep Baby from thinking about the sunburn and covering it so they can’t pick at it. It might be too painful to cover on the first day, but it should start to show signs of improvement after about 48 hours, and you and Baby will be right back to playing outside – just with a little more sunscreen.  

Sources

• “Sunburn and Children.” Johns Hopkins Medicine. The Johns Hopkins University. Accessed May 25, 2017. http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/conditions/pediatrics/sunburn_and_children_90,P01929/
• “Sunburn.” Seattle Children’s. Seattle Children’s Hospital. September 1, 2012. http://www.seattlechildrens.org/medical-conditions/symptom-index/sunburn/
• Mayo Clinic Staff. “Sunburn: First aid.” Mayo Clinic. Mayo Clinic. February 6, 2015. http://www.mayoclinic.org/first-aid/first-aid-sunburn/basics/art-20056643

Your newborn and their bald spot(s), here are the details

Fontanelles play an important role in giving Baby’s head the flexibility it needs to get through your narrow birth canal and are necessary to allow their head and brain room to grow and develop. Many parents are afraid of touching these spots, but you don’t have to be: there’s a strong membrane that protects Baby’s skull, so don’t worry if you touch them, just be gentle.

Eventually, the bones in Baby’s head will fuse together and these tiny gaps will close. The fontanelle on the back of their head will close within the first 3 or 4 months, and the one in the front will fuse when they is somewhere between about a year and year and a half old. You might notice their fontanelles slightly bulging when they strains during a bowel movement, or sometimes even coinciding with their heartbeats. Notify a doctor if Baby has soft spots that are very caved in or bulging out significantly, since this could signal dehydration or excess pressure, but otherwise, just be gentle, and all should be well.

Sources

• Mayo Clinic Staff. “Baby’s head shape: What’s normal?” Mayo Clinic. Mayo Clinic, January 29 2015. Web.
• “Your Baby’s Head.” HealthyChildren. American Academy of Pediatrics, June 1 2010. Web.

Learn how to analyze your newborn’s bowel movements

There is a lot of variation in what’s normal for newborns and their pooping habits.

Now that Baby is a few days old, they should have finished passing most of the meconium that coated their intestines during pregnancy and will have moved on to a fairly liquid, yellowy-brown mixture. Although most babies poop many times per day, it can help to know some minimum amounts to track. This depends somewhat on how Baby is being fed, so let’s start there.

What kind of newborn stool is normal if I’m breastfeeding?

If you’re breastfeeding, Baby’s pooping schedule needs to meet some minimum targets in the early days and weeks. If your breastfed baby is pooping less than twice a day after days four to five of their life, it’s a good idea to let your pediatric provider know. This might mean they aren’t getting enough milk. After 4-6 weeks of age, breastfed babies might start to poop less often and settle into a new normal because the protein concentrations in breast milk start to change.

The texture of Baby’s stool will probably be fairly loose and soft, with a curdled quality from the milk solids. It will range from yellowish to greenish in color. Many people describe a mustard-like color and consistency!

What kind of newborn stool is normal if I’m feeding Baby formula?

Newborns who are formula-fed from the start, as well as those who are combining formula and breast milk, will have slightly different stool textures. This means that their regular stool may be thicker or pastier in texture, more yellow-to-brown in color, and stronger smelling. Formula-fed newborns often poop less often than breastfed ones, so as long as Baby is developing well and gaining weight along their curve, you’ll find a wide variety of normal daily poop totals.

What to look out for

Some variation in Baby’s poop is normal, and most color changes (from yellow to green to brown) just have to do with how much time it takes them to digest a meal. Some changes in color and texture could mean trouble, though, so it’s important to know what these are.

If you notice that Baby’s stool is coming out red, black, gray or white, you should definitely call the doctor. White or gray poop could be a sign of an infection or a liver problem, while red or black could signal bleeding along the digestive tract.

And as far as constipation goes, texture is an important indicator. Poop that is hard or pellet-like (either small and dry or large and hard) is probably a sign of constipation. You may also see your baby straining, crying or having rectal bleeding along with this shape and size of stool. If you notice something like this in the newborn period, it’s important to check in with their pediatric provider right away.

On the other hand, watery or runnier-than-normal poop, especially in large amounts or frequently, could be diarrhea. Newborns with diarrhea can become dehydrated quickly, so be sure to check in with Baby’s pediatric provider if you notice this pattern. 

A look into the future

Baby’s poop, just like the rest of their body, is going to keep changing, and the next big shift will happen when they start eating solid food. Breastfed babies’ poop might grow more firm when they start solids, while formula-fed babies’ poop might become looser, but there’s no one standard way that their dirty diapers will change once they reach this point.

Sources

• Denise Bastien. “Importance of Newborn Stool Count.” Leaven. 33(6): 123-6. Web. December 1997-January 1998.
• Jay L. Hoecker. “I’m breastfeeding my newborn and her bowel movements are yellow and mushy. Is this normal for baby poop?” Mayo Clinic. Mayo Clinic, February 19, 2015. Web.

How to care for the umbilical stump of your newborn

The good news is that caring for Baby’s stump is simple. When you leave the hospital, it will be small, mostly dry, and yellowish in color. The clamp placed onto the cord after birth will generally be removed before you go home, but it’s harmless to leave on for longer. Over the next few days, the stump will shrink in size and turn darker or black in color. 

In the past, cord care involved different cleansers, alcohol wipes, or strictly keeping it dry. Now we know that less is definitely more when it comes to cord care. You can avoid actively cleaning the area around the cord and bathing Baby as if it isn’t there. Keeping the area uncovered and dry may mean the stump falls out more quickly. However, getting the area wet at bathtime is safe and does not increase the risk of infection. You can choose between a swaddle bath or a sponge bath, depending on what works best for you and Baby.

Because the skin around the stump is easily irritated, be sure that waistbands or diapers don’t rub against the healing site. Many newborn diapers have a cut-out area that leaves space for the umbilical cord. Diapers without the cut-out can be folded down to leave the same space.

Does healing hurt?

While it is important to be careful, the healing umbilical stump is not painful for Baby. There is no need to worry about holding them against your chest so that you can continue with skin-to-skin contact. As the stump begins to dry up and become loose, don’t pull it or pick at it. It’s important that the stump falls off naturally when it’s ready to.

Things to watch out for

Occasionally, the umbilical stump does not heal properly. Redness, swelling, oozing, and odor are all signs that an infection is present, as are more generalized symptoms like fever, fussiness, and vomiting. Contact the pediatric provider if this happens. 

After the stump falls off, it is normal to see some oozing at the base. This does not mean the area is infected. You may see a bit of blood on the top of Baby’s diaper, which is also normal unless it is actively bleeding. If there is active bleeding or the stump gets pulled out by accident – apply pressure with a clean towel or gauze. Just like when the stump was still attached, watch for swelling, redness, oozing, a foul smell, and generalized symptoms of infection like fever, nausea, or loss of appetite. Any concerns or active bleeding should be addressed with Baby‘s provider.

When will the umbilical stump be fully healed on my newborn?

While it can take one to two weeks for the umbilical stump to fall off, expect another 7 to 10 days of healing after the stump falls off. This may seem like a long process, but be patient, and Baby’s umbilical stump will be gone and healed before you know it.

Reviewed the Ovia Health Clinical Team

Sources

• Mayo Clinic Staff. “Umbilical cord care: Do’s and Don’ts for parents.” Mayo Clinic. Mayo Clinic, February 10, 2024. Web. https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/infant-and-toddler-health/in-depth/umbilical-cord/art-20048250
• American Academy of Pediatrics. “Umbilical Cord Care.” Healthy Children. 12/28/2020 https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/baby/bathing-skin-care/Pages/Umbilical-Cord-Care.aspx

Watching Baby fall down can be alarming, and some falls are sure to be worse than others, but most toddler tumbles can be treated with nothing more than a kiss, but it’s still important to be prepared in case of an injury that’s a little more serious, just in case. Here are some common toddler injuries, and tips on being prepared to treat them.

Bruises

Toddlers love to climb, but what goes up must come down, and there may be times when they comes down hard! When your child sustains a harder hit, you may notice a bruise forming in the area where they made contact. Bruises appear after a trauma to the body that causes blood vessels just below the skin to break open. Though bruises look painful, and can be tender for a while afterward, they are most often not a reason to worry.

If they falls down and a bruise begins to form, you can always start by scooping them up and kissing it better. Children often respond based on their parent’s reactions, so if they sees that you’re remaining calm, they is pretty likely to follow your example, especially for smaller bruises.

For bruises that look more severe, or that your child seems to be especially hurt by, try icing the area with a towel underneath for about 10 minutes at a time. You can try to distract your little one from both the bruise and the ice by sitting down with them to read a couple of books, or to enjoy a snack. Most bruises disappear within a week or two, and change colors as the body begins to reabsorb the blood.

Bumps

More frightening than the bruise is its injury counterpart – the bump. If your child falls and hits their head, or their knee, it’s not uncommon that a bump will appear. Bumps, or “eggs,” form to protect the body by swelling. Bumps can be painful, and treating the area with ice can reduce swelling. For bumps, it can also be helpful to speak to your child’s doctor about administering pain medicine such as acetaminophen or ibuprofen. Avoid using aspirin, which is a blood thinner, and should also never be given to children under 19.

Of course, many parents will wonder if a bump on the head might result in a concussion. While the American Academy of Pediatrics says most mild head injuries are not causes for concern, always contact your child’s doctor if your child shows any signs of a concussion. According to the Mayo Clinic, symptoms of concussions in toddlers include:

• Appearing dazed
• Listlessness and tiring easily
• Irritability and crankiness
• Loss of balance and unsteady walking
• Crying excessively
• Change in eating or sleeping patterns
• Lack of interest in favorite toys

Sources

• Mayo Clinic Staff. “Concussion Symptoms.” Mayo Clinic. Mayo Clinic, April 2 2014. Web.
• “Head Injury.” HealthyChildren. American Academy of Pediatrics, November 21 2015. Web.

Unless there’s an urgent emergency that needs immediate medical attention, calling your pediatrician’s office to talk through the problem is generally a pretty good place to start. Some parents worry about seeking medical help for a health problem that turns out not to be very serious, but healthcare professionals understand that it’s not always easy to tell what to worry about, and it’s always better to have something checked, even if it’s found to be just fine, than to not get something treated that turns serious.

What counts as an urgent, emergency situation?

Most of the time, the best way to start figuring out what kind of care your child needs is to call their pediatrician, but some situations are urgent enough that it’s best to skip that step, and move right on to a quick drive to the emergency room, or even calling 911 (for those in the US) or your local emergency number. Situations that fall into this category include:

• Breathing problems: Choking, stopping breathing, or turning blue are all signs to call 911 or your local emergency number. Trouble breathing, from asthma, swelling, an allergic reaction, or for any other reason should prompt a trip to the emergency room right away. The one exception to this is trouble breathing from a stuffy nose, if the blockage can be sucked out with a nasal aspirator. But when in doubt, it’s better to be safe.
• Head or neck injury: Injury to the neck or spine should be handled by calling 911 or your local emergency number, since a healthcare provider should give the okay to moving someone with an injured neck or spine, to make sure not to cause more damage. A head injury where the injured person is unconscious or passes out, vomits, or has uneven pupils should also receive medical care as soon as possible.
• Blood: Bleeding that can be stopped with pressure and elevation may be less urgent, but heavy bleeding or bleeding that parents are having a hard time stopping should receive quick medical attention.
• Potential poisoning: Children who may have swallowed something dangerous should get immediate medical care from poison control and either 911 or your local emergency number.
• Anything you suspect might be a broken bone: Urgent care clinics don’t generally handle broken bones, and broken bones should be looked at as soon as possible, so the emergency room or 911 are generally the way to go. Rapid swelling and an inability to move the hurt body part are pretty solid signs of a fracture.
• Dehydration: Signs of serious dehydration like dry mouth, crying with no tears, no wet diapers or urination for 18 hours, or a sunken-in fontanelle (soft spot) should receive medical attention as soon as possible.
• Less common symptoms: Other, less common symptoms that should lead to a 911 call or emergency room visit include difficulty waking your child, a high fever that doesn’t respond to medication, serious burns, coughing or throwing up blood, unusual and serious headache or chest pain, a fast heartbeat that doesn’t slow down again, or sustained throwing up or diarrhea.

Emergency room or urgent care?

If your child is hurt or sick, it can seem like heading straight for the emergency room is the only responsible thing to do. But for more minor injuries or illnesses, an emergency room visit can actually cause as much harm as good, between the exposure to germs in the emergency room and the fact that a doctor in the emergency room is not your child’s pediatrician, and may not be as familiar with their medical history.

There’s a reason that, for less urgent illnesses and injuries, it’s a good idea to start by calling your doctor. By waiting to come in for urgent care hours in your child’s pediatrician’s office, you’re more likely to find a healthcare provider who is experienced treating children, and one who has access to your child’s medical records. Urgent care is also often cheaper, and may mean less of a wait.

Sources

• Elana Pearl Ben-Joseph. “Is It a Medical Emergency?” Kids Health. The Nemours Foundation, April 2013. Web.
• “Urgent Care Versus the ER: A Pediatrician Offers Tips on Making the Right Choice.” Hopkins Medicine. The Johns Hopkins University, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, and The Johns Hopkins Health Center. Web.
• “When to use the emergency room – child.” Medline Plus. U.S. National Library of Medicine, November 20 2014. Web.